Local law enforcement agencies use a variety of lethal and non-lethal weapons. One of these weapons, the Taser, receives both positive and negative publicity. The 2005-2006 Grand Jury looked at the use of the Taser by local law enforcement agencies, focusing on established policy and training.
The Grand Jury found that all local law enforcement agencies
within the
Recommendations are made encouraging continued policy review and additional training.
Afid Tags: Each air cartridge contains over forty minute particles that identify the serial number of the air cartridge used.
Air cartridge: a replaceable cartridge for the Taser that uses compressed nitrogen to fire two barbed probes on connecting wires, sending high-voltage current into the target
Barb: sharp point of the probe that is intended to penetrate clothing or skin. Penetration of skin is not required for successful deployment.
Drive Stun: bringing the Taser into direct contact with the target after the air cartridge has been expended or removed
Excited delirium: a behavioral condition whereby a person exhibits extremely agitated and non-coherent behavior, elevated temperature, high tolerance to pain, and excessive endurance without fatigue
Taser: a conducted-energy weapon that utilizes compressed nitrogen to shoot two probes up to twenty-one feet. The probes are connected to the weapon by wires and when the probes make contact with the target, the Taser transmits electrical pulses along the wires and into the body of the target. Taser is both the company name and the product name.
Lethal Weapon: weapon that, by design, is capable of causing death
Non-Lethal or Less-Lethal Weapon: weapon that is designed and normally employed to incapacitate, while minimizing fatalities
OC: Oleoresin Capsicum; also known as pepper spray; used as a non-lethal, self-defense tool that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and even temporary blindness
POST: Commission
on California Peace Officer Standards and Training; the agency that regulates
standards and training for
Use of Force:
Every day throughout the country, law enforcement officers
are faced with difficult split-second decisions to use lethal or non-lethal
force to protect their lives, or the life of another person. This difficult
decision also falls upon law enforcement officers serving in
When lethal force is not justified, and sometimes when it is, law enforcement officers employ non-lethal weapons to perform their duties. Various types of non-lethal weapons are used by law enforcement including impact weapons, chemical agents, and defensive tactics. More recently, less lethal munitions that deploy a bean-bag or a plastic projectile have been available to law enforcement officers.
Most non-lethal weapons and force options depend on pain-compliance to be effective. The effectiveness of these measures can be diminished by size, strength, mental condition, or being under a chemically influenced state.
People under the influence of an illicit stimulant substance such as cocaine or methamphetamine, or people with a history of mental illness who are not taking their medications properly, are particularly prone to the condition of excited delirium. Pain-compliance weapons and force are minimally effective on those in a state of excited delirium. Therefore, law enforcement personnel are at greater risk for injury when they must take control of such a person. Using hands-on force, or the Taser, can escalate a state of excited delirium.
Taser, the brand name for the Thomas A. Swift Electronic Rifle, manufactured by Taser International, is advertised as a less-lethal weapon that does not depend on pain-compliance. The most current models of the Taser in use by local law enforcement, the M26 (introduced in 1999) and the X26 (introduced in 2003) override the central nervous system and incapacitate the subject. It is, therefore, more effective against persons who have the ability to resist painful stimuli.
Taser International asserts that their current model, the X26, produces a low-amperage, high-voltage discharge. Training material shows the amperage output of a standard Christmas tree bulb as 1 amp, and that of the Taser as 0.0036 amps. Taser International additionally asserts that the static discharge from a door knob can range from 35,000 to 100,000 volts compared to 50,000 volts from the Taser.
When oleoresin capsicum (OC) or Pepper Spray was first introduced for use by law enforcement its use was controversial. Use of the Taser is likewise controversial. While news articles often focus on detrimental effects of Taser usage, the successful deployment of Tasers and their effectiveness are less frequently reported. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and Amnesty International are two organizations that have been particularly critical of Taser use. Many studies have been conducted concerning the Taser that reflect both sides of the controversy. The results are often contradictory. Published articles often encourage a completely independent government-sponsored study of the Taser, rather than studies conducted or commissioned by Taser International.
A study published by the
· impact weapons had high injury rates and lower effective rates
· chemical agents had very low injury rates but were often ineffective
· defensive tactics caused the largest number of suspect and officer injuries and were often ineffective
· Taser was effective seventy-seven to ninety-five percent of the time and was effective in de-escalation ninety percent of the time with a very low injury rate
The ACLU of Northern California (ACLU-NC) published a Taser Study in September 2005.[2] Included in this study was a “Best Practices Taser Policy.” This did not represent a “model policy,” rather “some of the best policies currently being employed by regional law enforcement agencies.” Portions of the policies of Capitola and Scotts Valley Police Departments were favorably cited by the ACLU-NC.
The Criminal Justice Committee of the 2005-2006 Grand Jury reviewed the departmental policies of the five local law enforcement agencies (Capitola Police Department, City of Santa Cruz Police Department, Scotts Valley Police Department, Watsonville Police Department, and Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner’s Office) pertaining to the use of the Taser, and compared each policy with the “Best Practices Taser Policy” presented by the ACLU-NC. State law enforcement agencies were excluded from the study.
Specific Taser training is not currently available from California Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST). Law enforcement personnel are trained by department in-house training staff who were previously trained by Taser International. Training material is constantly updated. The current training version provided by Taser International is version 12.0.
This investigation focused on the policies and procedures of
each local law enforcement agency in the
1. Every local law enforcement agency has a Taser policy in place.
Response: The
Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
2. All local law enforcement agencies have reviewed and revised their Taser Policies within the past twelve months.
Response: The
Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
3. Not all local law enforcement agencies publish a “use of force” report that includes Taser use and deployment.
Response:
The
Response:
Capitola Police Department AGREES.
Currently there are no reports that specifically record Taser use and
deployment within the Capitola Police Department. However, for the past several
years, the Capitola Police Department has had a comprehensive use of force
reporting and investigation policy that records all use of force incidents
including the use of the Taser. While
the Police Department has not published these reports in the past, we plan to
do so as part of the annual year end report which is usually published each
April.
Response:
City of
While the City of
Response: The
Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
The Scotts Valley Police Department has not
implemented such a form but anticipates doing so within the next six months.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
4.
Every local law enforcement agency currently
employs an officer trained to instruct in the proper use of the Taser according
to individual department policy.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department DISAGREES.
The
Watsonville Police Department began issuing X26 Tasers to each individual
officer July of 2006.
5.
Every local law enforcement agency currently employs
an officer trained to instruct in the proper use of the Taser according to
individual department policy.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
6. Every
local law enforcement agency uses the most current Taser training material
provided by Taser International for initial and updated Taser training. POST
does not provide Taser training to
Response:
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
Capitola Police
Department has used the M-26 Taser since July 2003, and has recently purchased and trained on the
new X-26 Taser model. Since the
implementation of the current models of the Taser, the only available law
enforcement training resource was from Taser International, the manufacturer.
All training and procedure materials were supplied by the manufacturer as there
were no other resources available. This has recently changed with new
California P.O.S.T. training requirements (Copy of California Commission on Peace
Officer Standards & Training (POST) Electronic Weapons Courses Regulation
1084, see attachment #1).
Response: City of
The City of
Response: The Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
The Scotts Valley Police Department’s Taser Instructor was trained via
Taser International; however we plan to send our instructor to a recently
created POST Taser Instructor course.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
7.
Taser training officers must be re-certified
every two years.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
8.
Only officers who have received Taser training
are authorized to carry a Taser.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
9.
Every local law enforcement agency requires that
officers who are going to carry Tasers on their duty shifts, must test the
weapon prior to departing the office.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
10.
Officers carry a Taser on the opposite side of
their bodies from their lethal weapons.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
11.
It is reported by training officers that the
mere threat of using a Taser will often de-escalate a volatile situation.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
12.
The range of probes from a Taser is fifteen to
twenty-one feet from weapon to target, thus
reducing the proximity of physical contact.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
13.
When either the M26 or the X26 is discharged,
small, colored and transparent, coded microdots, called afids, disburse into
the surrounding area. The afids facilitate the collection of evidence and are
traceable to the taser weapon used.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
14.
Barbs that penetrate the skin can be removed
easily by officers or medical personnel.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department
AGREES.
15.
Commonly, photos are taken of barb sites after
removal.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
16.
The M26 and X26 Taser models have built-in
memory that documents use of the weapon and are capable of being downloaded and
used for statistical data gathering. Not all local law enforcement agencies
have purchased the computer hardware to download this information.
Response:
It is not known what other local agencies have in the way of software to
download the described information. The Sheriff’s Office does have the ability
to download all available statistical information stored in the taser memory.
As a matter of policy, trained personnel download all such information
following a taser discharge that becomes part of the written report.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
When the Police
Department purchased its M-26 Tasers in 2003, we did not purchase the optional
computer which can gather the statistical data. With our recent purchase of the
new X-26 models, we have also purchased the computer. This computer however, is
not capable of downloading information from the M-26 models. A separate
computer would need to be purchased to work with the M-26 model.
Response: City of
The City of
Response: The Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
The Watsonville Police Department has the software necessary to
download TASER data and is in the process of purchasing a laptop that
will be dedicated for this purpose.
17.
Local law enforcement agency administrators were
knowledgeable about the Taser and the controversy surrounding its use.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
18.
A search of the literature by the Grand Jury
found that death or injury, associated with Taser utilization by law
enforcement, occurred disproportionately in suspects on drugs, in states of
excited delirium, or in those who received persistent multiple shocks.
Response:
The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
19.
It is difficult for law enforcement officers to
quickly recognize the broad range of symptoms exhibited in states of excited
delirium.
Response:
Excited delirium is a medical
condition that is still not fully understood. All Sheriff’s Office personnel
who have been trained and authorized to carry the taser have also received
information concerning excited delirium. Further, the county forensic
pathologist provided a block of instruction on this topic to Sheriff’s
personnel.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
When the Police
Department first began training and using the Tasers, the symptom known as
“excited delirium” was an unknown. Over the past couple of years, however, the
Police Department has conducted regular training on various objective symptoms
of both physical and psychological indicators which may result in Taser usage.
This on going training now includes recognizing the symptoms of “excited
delirium.”
Response: City of Santa Cruz Police Department PARTIALLY AGREES.
The City of
Response: The Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
20. All of the policy items listed in the ACLU-NC “Best Practices Taser Policy” are partially or fully addressed in the Taser Policy of every local law enforcement agency.
Response: The
Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
21.
Local law enforcement administrators and
training officers have told the 2005-2006 Grand Jury that officer Workers
Compensation claims and suspect injuries have declined since Taser use began.
Response:
The use of the taser by Sheriff’s staff is a recent event; therefore,
there is little historical information available at this time. In the few times
the taser has been utilized by deputies since implementation, there has been no
reported injury to either the suspect or deputy. Considering our limited taser
experience, it is possible both suspect and deputy could have received injuries
from a physical confrontation had the taser not been utilized.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
The Capitola Police
Department has conducted an audit of all of its Worker’s Compensation records
for Police Officers injured in the line of duty in situations where a Taser
could have been deployed if one was available. Our audit revealed no officer
injuries during the last six months of 2003 when the Taser program began. There
was a spike in injuries in 2004 and a significant decrease in officer injuries
in 2005 and 2006.
Response: City of Santa Cruz Police Department PARTIALLY AGREES.
It is difficult to
statistically isolate the impacts of the Taser on Workers Compensation and
suspect injuries. There are too many confounding factors that would render the
information nothing more than anecdotal.
Response: The Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
1. Local law enforcement agencies have policies that regulate Taser use that meet or exceed the “Best Practices Taser Policy” recommended by the ACLU-NC.
2. Departmental administrators and Taser training officers are knowledgeable in the use of the Taser and its possible risks.
3. Local law enforcement agencies are using the most current Taser training material.
4. Law enforcement agencies must have less-lethal weapons at their disposal to better protect themselves and the public.
5. POST does not provide independent training in the use of the Taser.
6. Less-lethal weapons, such as the Taser, decrease the need for traditional defensive tactics by law enforcement officers, and are reported to be responsible for a reduction in costly Workers Compensation claims.
7. A person in a state of excited delirium poses a serious threat to law enforcement personnel, as well as the general public.
8. Community outreach and the sharing of published reports showing the circumstances and use of less-lethal weapons, including the Taser, would help to educate the public and improve law enforcement relationships with the community.
1.
Local law enforcement agencies should continue
to be diligent in updating their Taser policies to conform to changing
regulations and technology.
Response:
This recommendation has been
implemented.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
This recommendation has been implemented.
Response: City of Santa
Cruz Police Department:
The recommendation has
been implemented. The City of
Response: The Scotts
Valley Police Department AGREES.
Updates to the Scotts Valley Police
Department’s Taser policy have been implemented.
Response: The
Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
Since its inception,
the Watsonville Police Department has been vigilant in keeping up on changes
related to electronic stun devices. Experiences from other agencies relative to
successful use and mis-use of the TASER continue to be an important part of
on-going policy management. New information and developments concerning the
weapon’s strengths and weaknesses are regularly incorporated into training
scenarios and curriculum.
Currently, all Taser training officers receive their
training from Taser International. Local law enforcement administrators should
lobby POST to provide independent training for Taser use.
Response:
This recommendation has been implemented.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
This recommendation has been implemented. On
Response: City of Santa
Cruz Police Department:
The recommendation has
been implemented by POST. The City of
Response: The Scotts
Valley Police Department AGREES.
This has been implemented. POST has since
created a Taser Instructor’s Course. This 16-hour course includes curriculum
which covers medical aspects, risk factors such as drugs, alcohol, excited
delirium, positional asphyxia, legal and ethical considerations, and more.
Response: The
Watsonville Police Department PARTIALLY AGREES.
This is a good idea
conceptually but until such time POST is prepared to carry out such training,
the Watsonville Police Department will continue to turn to the manufacturer of
the TASER device for advanced training needs. The dependence upon manufacturer
support and training is not new to law enforcement. Agencies routinely look to
the makers of specialty devices such as guns, batons and less lethal equipment
— for initial training and certification purposes. In-house experts, who
independently design curriculum based on the needs of the agency, carry out
on-going training.
Local law enforcement agencies should publish a Use of Force
Report to include Taser usage. Portions of this report could be shared with
members of the community to foster educational awareness and improve community
relations.
Response: Santa Cruz County Sheriff’s Office PARTIALLY DISAGREES.
This recommendation requires further analysis. Every utilization of the
taser, including an accidental discharge or the mere display of the weapon to
gain compliance, requires a written report by policy. This documentation is
believed sufficient.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
This recommendation
has not yet been implemented, but will be implemented as part of the 2006
Capitola Police Department Year End Report due in the spring of 2007.
Response: City of Santa
Cruz Police Department:
The recommendation has
been implemented. The City of Santa Cruz Police Department has collected data,
and provided a yearly report to the City Council, since 2005.
Response: The Scotts
Valley Police Department AGREES.
The Scotts Valley Police Department has not
yet implemented this recommendation, but is in the process of creating such a
report form within the next six months.
Response: The
Watsonville Police Department PARTIALLY AGREES.
Government code
6254(f) identifies certain information, which must be made public unless
release of the information would endanger the safety of a person or the
successful completion of an investigation. In accordance with this law, the
Watsonville Police Department has cooperated with public records requests for TASER
Use of Force Reports and has released information to the press about the
frequency of usage by its officers. In addition, portions of the Use of Force
Report have been shared with members of the public during community education
sessions.
The Grand Jury recommends that law enforcement agencies
within the county begin a tracking system to determine if a correlation between
Taser deployment and the number of law enforcement officer Workers Compensation
claims exists.
Response: Santa Cruz County Sheriff’s Office AGREES.
This recommendation requires further analysis. The Sheriff’s Office is
willing to work with other local law enforcement agencies to devise an
instrument for this purpose.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
This recommendation has been implemented.
Response: City of Santa
Cruz Police Department:
The recommendation has
been implemented. The City of Santa Cruz Police Department already maintains a
tracking system of usage.
Response: The Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
The Scotts Valley Police Department has not yet implemented this
recommendation but believes the completed Use of Force report will aid in
tracking any correlation between use of force incidents and workers
compensation claims. We anticipate a time frame of six months to complete
implementation.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
The Watsonville Police
Department supports this type of study and is currently gathering the data
necessary to carry out a proper analysis.
2.
Local law enforcement agencies should train
their personnel in the recognition of symptoms related to excited delirium and
establish policies for handling persons in that state. As soon as reasonably
possible, the services of medical professionals should be enlisted to render appropriate
care.
Response: Santa Cruz County Sheriff’s Office AGREES.
This
recommendation has been implemented. The Sheriff’s Office already conducts such
training and the policy on taser use addresses medical concerns and response.
Response: Capitola Police Department AGREES.
This
recommendation has been implemented.
Response: City of Santa Cruz Police Department:
The recommendation has
not yet been implemented, but will be implemented in the future. The City of
Santa Cruz Police Department is aiming for implementation within 180 days.
Response: The Scotts Valley Police Department AGREES.
The Scotts Valley Police Department has implemented this recommendation.
Officers receive training in the recognition of excited delirium and our taser
policy includes a medical care component.
Response: The Watsonville Police Department AGREES.
The Watsonville Police
Department strongly agrees with this recommendation and has been instrumental
in providing Excited Delirium and In-Custody Death training to members of local
law enforcement, fire, paramedic and hospital personnel.
Entity |
Findings |
Recommendations |
Respond Within |
|
Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner |
3, 6, 16, 19, 21 |
1-5 |
60 Days (September 1, 2006) |
|
Capitola Police Department |
3, 6, 16, 19, 21 |
1-5 |
90 Days (October 1, 2006) |
|
City of Santa Cruz Police Department |
3, 6, 16, 19, 21 |
1-5 |
90 Days (October 1, 2006) |
|
Scotts Valley Police Department |
3, 6, 16, 19, 21 |
1-5 |
90 Days (October 1, 2006) |
|
Watsonville Police Department |
3, 6, 16, 19, 21 |
1-5 |
90 Days (October 1, 2006) |
Interviewed:
Chief of Police, Capitola Police Department.
Chief of Police, City of Santa Cruz Police Department.
Chief of Police, Scotts Valley Police Department.
Chief of Police, Watsonville Police Department.
Sheriff-Coroner, Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner’s Office.
Training Officer, Capitola Police Department.
Training Officer, City of Santa Cruz Police Department.
Training Manager, Scotts Valley Police Department.
Training Officer, Watsonville Police Department.
Training Officer, Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner’s Office.
Reviewed:
Documents/Articles/Policies and Procedures
American Civil Liberties Union of Northern California, “Stun Gun Fallacy: How the Lack of Taser Regulation Endangers Lives,” September 2005.
Amnesty International, United States of America – Excessive and Lethal Force? Amnesty International’s concerns about death and ill-treatment involving police use of Tasers, November 2005, www.amnesty.org.
California Peace Officers Association, “Use of Force – A Sample Law Enforcement Policy,” June 2004.
Capitola Police Department
“Less Lethal Impact Munitions,” March 10, 1996.
“Police Use of the Advanced Taser,” July 10, 2003.
“Police Use of the M-26 Advanced Taser.”
“Use of Force Policy,” August 8, 1988.
Coalition for Justice and Accountability, “Tasers: A Reassessment,” March 2005.
Florida Gulf Coast University, “Taser Deployment and Injuries: Analysis of Current and Emerging Trends,” undated document.
Government Accountability Office, “Use of Tasers by Selected Law Enforcement Agencies,” May 2005.
Ho M.D. FACEP, Jeffrey D, “Sudden In-Custody Death,” Policemag.com.
Ho M.D., Jeffrey, Miner M.D., James R., Lakireddy M.D., Dhanunjaya R., Bultman M.D., Laura L., Heegoord M.D., MPH, William G., “Cardiovascular and Physiologic Effects of Conducted Electrical Weapon Discharge in Resting Adults,” Academic Emergency Medicine, 2006 (in press).
Madison Police Department Taser Report, January 2005.
McBride, Dr. Dennis K. and Teddeer, Natalie, Potomac Institute for Policy Studies Report Number 05-04, March 29, 2005.
San Jose Police Department Response to the Santa Clara County Civil Grand Jury, August 2005.
Santa Clara County Civil Grand Jury Report, 2004-2005.
Santa Cruz City Police Department
“2005 Intermediate Use of Force Overview.”
“Use of Force Policy.”
“Use of Taser – Policy and Procedure,” Revised 11/18/05.
Santa Cruz County Sheriff-Coroner’s Office
“Use of Force Policy,” March 4, 1996.
“Taser Devices – Operation and Reporting, March 08, 2006.”
“X-26 Taser Less-Lethal Expanded Course Outline.”
Scotts Valley Police Department
“Training Plan,” August 29, 2004.
“Use of Physical Force (including Taser Policy),” March 1, 2006.
Taser International
“Deadly Rhetoric: How the ACLU of Northern California’s Fight Against Law Enforcement Control Tools Endangers Communities,” January 2006.
Press pack – includes a compilation of press releases from eight newspapers.
Product Warnings – Law Enforcement, March 20, 2006.
Saving Lives Everyday – Instructor Certification Course – Version 12.0, November 2004.
The Law Enforcement Alliance of America, “ACLU Junk Science Puts Cops Lives at Risk.”
United States Department of Defense – Human Effects Center of Excellence – “Report on Human Effectiveness and Risk Characterization of Electromuscular Incapacitation Devices,” October 18, 2004.
Watsonville Police Department
“Use of Force Policy,” January 9, 2002.
“Use of Taser – Policy and Procedure,” June 1, 2005.
Associated Press, “Man shot with stun gun sues Taser,” September 2005.
Contra Costa Times, “Department suspends use of tasers,” December 30, 2005.
Los Angeles Daily Journal, “Taser’s high-voltage dispute – dozens of injury claims hit the Arizona company,” September 22, 2005.
Salt Lake Tribune, “Man subdued with taser doing well,” September 14, 2005.
San Jose Mercury News,
“Delay sought on taser decision,” October 18, 2005.
“Report critical of taser use,” undated article.
“Family lashes out at police over death – but witness says man ‘kept fighting’,” November 21, 2005.
Santa
Cruz Sentinel
“Police use taser on combative woman,” July 8, 2005.
“Taser policy sought after Santa Cruz victim acquitted of charges,” August 6, 2005.
“Police taser, arrest juvenile shoplifter,” August 15, 2005.
“Watsonville police defend latest use of taser,” August 17, 2005.
“Jail death probed – Taser used to control unruly man,” September 20, 2005.
“Coroner – Jail death was accident,” September 21, 2005.
“Taser ruled out in death – Scuffle led to suffocation, certificate says,” September 23, 2005.
“SEC now formally investigating taser; company shares fall,” September 28, 2005.
“Police issue rules on use of taser stun guns,” October 1, 2005.
“ACLU: Police need tighter rules on tasers,” October 7, 2005.
“Parolee threatening Watsonville police stung,” October 8, 2005.
“Man claims taser immunity, stunned twice with taser,” October 15, 2005.
“Civilian tasers – all 50,000 volts worth – worry local police,” November 5, 2005.
“Capitola – Police use taser to subdue teen,” November 22, 2005.
“Taser guns need to be re-evaluated,” undated article.
“Deputies use taser after traffic stop,” January 6, 2006.
“Watsonville man tasered in hospital,” January 26, 2006.
“Beating victim dies in police struggle,” January 29, 2006.
“Man stunned with taser gun dies at hospital,” February 2, 2006.
“Officers use taser on man threatening them with knife,” February 8, 2006.
“Police use taser to disarm man,” March 21, 2006.
Web Sites
Associated Press, www.associatedpress.com, “Man Shot with Stun Gun Sues Taser,” September 2005.
CBS news, www.cbsnews.com,
Jones, Susan, “Police Shot Him but ACLU Killed Him, Group Says,” February 17, 2006.
CBS News Online, “Indepth Tasers – FAQs,” undated.
Contra Costa Times, www.contracosta times.com
McNamara, Danielle, “Officer Shoots, Kills Man Armed with Butcher’s tool,” February 16, 2006.
McNamara, Danielle, “Department Suspends Use of Taser Guns,” December 30, 2005.
Detroit Freepress, www.freep.com, Meyer, Zlati, “Autopsy: Taser was not at fault in death,” Detroit Freepress, September 2, 2005.
Education, www.education.org, “Excited Delirium, Restraint Asphyxia, Positional Asphyxia and ‘In-Custody Death’ Syndromes,” August 2005.
Forbes, www.forbes.com, “Update 1: Taser SEC Closes Two Investigations,” December 13, 2005.
Fort Worth Weekly, www.corpwatch.org, Gorman, Peter, “US: torture by Taser,” June 24, 2005.
Officer.com, www.officer.com, Brooks, Eric, “Most sophisticated Police Use of Tasers Study Backed by Federal Grant,” March 8, 2006.
Orland Sentinel, www.orland sentinel.com, Ailworth, Erin and Ma, Ken, “Man Set on Fire as Taser Hits Lighter,” February 23, 2006.
Palm Beach Post, www.palmbeachpost.com,
Barton, Antigone, “Drugs Shadow Taser Cases,” August 14, 2005.
Bird, Allyson, “2nd Officer Put on Leave in Taser Incident Probe,” March 1, 2006.
Bird, Allyson, “Taser Autopsy Findings on Hold During Probes,” March 2, 2006.
Davies, Dani, “Bartender says she’s ‘just too scared’ after Taser,” May 29, 2005.
“Are Officers Too Quick to Fire?” March 8, 2006.
“Teen Tells Story of Being Tased after Mouthing off to Deputies,” May 29, 2006.
Salt Lake Tribune, www.saltlaketribune.com, “Man Subdued with Taser Doing Well,” September 14, 2005.
USA Today, www.usatoday.com, Johnson, Kevin, “Fairness of Taser Study in Question,” May 12, 2005.